Cesare Lombroso, professor of psychiatry and anthropology at the
University of Turin, sought through firsthand observation and
measurement of prison __ inmates__ to determine the characteristics of
__criminal
types__. Some of his ___
investigations___ allowed him to establish the existence
of “hereditary criminals”. Lombroso held that such criminals exhibit a
higher percentage of physical and mental anomalies than do noncriminals.
Among these anomalies, were various unusual skull sizes and asymmetries
of the facial bones.
Other scholars helped to introduce the ideas
that crime has _multiple_ causes and that most criminals are not born
criminal but are shaped by their __upbringing__ and associations. Thus, the
emphasis in criminology had turned to experimental _ case studies__ and to
preventive and _ rehabilitative_ measures. Without this contribution into the
scientific study of criminals the present-day alternatives to
__capital punishment__ and old-fashioned imprisonment such as probation, __suspended__
sentence, fines, and parole would have been _unthinkable___.